FREE ESSAY ON BATTERED WOMEN SYNDROME:

BATTERED WOMEN SYNDROME:

PSYCHOLOGY 115 - PSYCHOLOGY OF ADJUSTMENT
Calvin Toombs
Professor
BATTERED WOMEN SYNDROME:
A Survey of Contemporary Theories 
In 
Domestic Violence
by 
Spring Rosati
In 1991, Governor William Weld modified parole regulations and permitted women to seek
commutation if they could present evidence indicating they suffered from battered women's
syndrome. A short while later, the Governor, citing spousal abuse as his impetus,
released seven 
women convicted of killing their husbands, and the Great and General Court of
Massachusetts enacted Mass. Gen. L. ch. 233 23E (1993), which permits the introduction of
evidence of abuse in criminal trials. These decisive acts brought the issue of domestic
abuse to the public's attention and left many Massachusetts residents, lawyers and judges
struggling to define battered women's syndrome. In order to help these individuals define
battered women's syndrome, the origins and 
development of the three primary theories of the syndrome and recommended treatments are
outlined below. 
The Classical Theory of Battered Women's Syndrome and its Origins The Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV), known in the mental health field as the
clinician's bible, does not recognize battered women's syndrome as a distinct mental
disorder. In fact, Dr. Lenore Walker, the architect of the classical battered women's
syndrome theory, notes the syndrome is not an illness, but a theory that draws upon the
principles of learned helplessness to explain why some women are unable to leave their
abusers. Therefore, the classical battered women's syndrome theory is best regarded as an
offshoot of the theory of learned helplessness and not a mental illness that afflicts
abused women. 
The theory of learned helplessness sought to account for the passive behavior subjects
exhibited when placed in an uncontrollable environment. In the late 60's and early 70's,
Martin Seligman, a famous researcher in the field of psychology, conducted a series of
experiments in which dogs were placed in one of two types of cages. In the former cage,
henceforth referred to as the shock cage, a bell would sound and the experimenters would
electrify the entire floor seconds later, shocking the dog regardless of location. The
latter cage, however, although similar in every other respect to the shock cage,
contained a small area where the experimenters could administer no shock. Seligman
observed that while the dogs in the latter cage learned to run to the nonelectrified area
after a series of shocks, the dogs in the shock cage gave up trying to escape, even when
placed in the latter cage and shown that escape was possible. Seligman theorized that the
dogs' initial experience in the uncontrollable shock cage led them to believe that they
could not control future events and was responsible for the observed disruptions in
behavior and learning. Thus, according to the theory of learned helplessness, a subject
placed in an uncontrollable environment will become passive and accept painful stimuli,
even though escape is possible and apparent. 
In the late 1970's, Dr. Walker drew upon Seligman's research and incorporated it into her
own theory, the battered women's syndrome, in an attempt to explain why battered women
remain with their abusers. According to Dr. Walker, battered women's syndrome contains
two distinct elements: a cycle of violence and symptoms of learned helplessness. 
The cycle of violence is composed of three phases: the tension building phase, active
battering phase and calm loving respite phase. During the tension building phase, the
victim is subjected to verbal abuse and minor battering incidents, such as slaps, pinches
and psychological abuse. In this phase, the woman tries to pacify her batterer by using
techniques that have worked previously. Typically, the woman showers her abuser with
kindness or attempts to avoid him. However, the victim's attempts to pacify her batter
are often fruitless and only work to delay the inevitable acute battering incident. The
tension building phase ends and the active battering phase begins when the verbal abuse
and minor battering evolve into an acute battering incident. A release of the tensions
built during phase one characterizes the active battering phase, which usually last for a
period of two to twenty-four hours. The violence during this phase is unpredictable and
inevitable, and statistics indicate that the risk of the batterer murdering his victim is
at its greatest. The batterer places his victim in a constant state of fear, and she is
unable to control her batterer's violence by utilizing techniques that worked in the
tension building phase. The victim, realizing her lack of control, attempts to mitigate
the violence by becoming passive. After the active battering phase comes to a close, the
cycle of violence enters the calm loving respite phase or honeymoon phase. During this
phase, the batterer apologizes for his abusive behavior and promises that it will never
happen again. The behavior exhibited by the batter in the calm loving respite phase
closely resembles the behavior he exhibited when the couple first met and fell in love.
The calm loving respite phase is the most psychologically victimizing phase because the
batterer fools the victim, who is relieved that the abuse has ended, into believing that
he has changed. However, inevitably, the batterer begins to verbally abuse his victim and
the cycle of abuse begins anew. 
According to Dr. Walker, Seligman's theory of learned helplessness explains why women
stay with their abusers and occurs in a victim after the cycle of violence repeats
numerous times. As noted earlier, dogs who were placed in an environment where pain was
unavoidable responded by becoming passive. Dr. Walker asserts that, in the domestic abuse
ambit, sporadic brutality, perceptions of powerlessness, lack of financial resources and
the superior strength of the batterer all combine to instill a feeling of helplessness in
the victim. In other words, batterers condition women into believing that they are
powerless to escape by subjecting them to a continuing pattern of uncontrollable violence
and abuse. Dr. Walker, in applying the learned helplessness theory to battered women,
changed society's perception of battered women by dispelling the myth that battered women
like abuse and offering a logical and rationale explanation for why most stay with their
abuser. 
As the classical theory of battered women's syndrome is based upon the psychological
principles of conditioning, experts believe that behavior modification strategies are
best suited for treating women suffering from the syndrome. A simple, yet effective,
behavioral strategy consists of two stages. In the initial stage, the battered woman
removes herself from the uncontrollable or shock cage environment and isolates herself
from her abuser. Generally, professionals help the victim escape by using assertiveness
training, modeling and recommending use of the court system. After the woman terminates
the abusive relationship, professionals give the victim relapse prevention training to
ensure that subsequent exposure to abusive behavior will not cause maladaptive behavior.
Although this strategy is effective, the model offered by Dr. Walker suggests that
battered women usually do not actively seek out help. Therefore, concerned agencies and
individuals must be proactive and extremely sensitive to the needs and fears of victims.
In sum, the classical battered women's syndrome is a theory that has its origins in the
research of Martin Seligman. 
Women in a domestic abuse situation experience a cycle of violence with their abuser. The
cycle is composed of three phases: the tension building phase, active battering phase and
calm loving respite phase. A gradual increase in verbal abuse marks the tension building
phase. When this abuse culminates into an acute battering episode, the relationship
enters the active battering phase. Once the acute battering phase ends, usually within
two to twenty-four hours, the parties enter the calm loving respite phase, in which the
batterer expresses remorse and promises to change. After the cycle has played out several
times, the victim begins to manifest symptoms of 
learned helplessness. 
Behavioral modification strategies offer an effective treatment for battered women's
syndrome. However, Dr. Walker's model indicates that battered women may not seek the help
that they need because of feelings of helplessness. 
An Alternate Battered Women's Syndrome Theory: Battered Women as Survivors
Over the years, empirical data has emerged that casts doubt on Dr. Walker's explanation
of why women stay with their batterers or, in extreme cases, why they kill their abusers.
Two researchers, Edward W. Gondolf and Ellen R. Fisher, make reference to voluminous
statistics that refute the classical battered women's syndrome theory, and suggest Dr.
Walker erroneously attributes a victim's refusal to leave her batterer to learned
helplessness. For instance, the two, in discounting Dr. Walker's theory, cite a study
conducted by Lee H. Bowker that indicates victims of abuse often contact other family
members for help as the violence escalates over time. The two also note that Bowker
observed a steady increase in formal help-seeking behavior as the violence increased. In
addition to citing empirical data, Gondolf and Fisher point out that using Dr. Walker's
theory to explain the battered woman's actions in extreme cases creates the ultimate
oxymoron: a woman so helpless she kills her batterer. 
In an effort to account for the shortcomings of the classical battered women's theory,
Gondolf and Fisher offered the markedly different survivor theory of battered women's
syndrome, which consists of four important elements. The first element of the survivor
theory surmises that a pattern of abuse prompts battered women to employ innovative
coping strategies and to seek help, such as flattering the batterer and turning to their
families for assistance. When these sources of help prove ineffective, the battered woman
seeks out other sources and employs different strategies to lessen the abuse. For
example, the battered women may avoid her abuser all together and seek help from the
court system. Thus, according to the survivor theory, battered women actively seek help
and employ coping skills throughout the abusive relationship. In contrast, the classical
theory of battered women's syndrome views women as becoming passive and helpless in the
face of repeated abuse. 
The second element of Gondolf and Fisher's theory posits that a lack of options, know-how
and finances, not learned helplessness, instills a feeling of anxiety in the victim that
prevents her from escaping the abuser. When a battered woman seeks outside help, she is
typically confronted with an ineffective bureaucracy, insufficient help sources and
societal indifference. This lack of practical options, combined with the victim's lack of
financial resources, make it likely that a battered women will stay and try to change her
batterer, rather than leave and face the unknown. The classical battered women's syndrome
theory differs in that it focuses on the victim's perception that escape is impossible,
not on the obstacles the victim must overcome to escape. 
The third element expands on the first and describes how the victim actively seeks help
from a variety of formal and informal help sources. For instance, an example of an
informal help source would be a close friend and a formal help source would be a shelter.
Gondolf and Fisher maintain that the help obtained from these sources is inadequate and
piecemeal in nature. Given these inadequacies, the researchers conclude that the leaving
a batterer is a difficult path for a victim to embark upon. 
The fourth element of the survivor theory hypothesizes that the failure of the
aforementioned help sources to intervene in a comprehensive and decisive manner permits
the cycle of abuse to continue unchecked. Interestingly, Gondolf and Fisher blame the
lack of effective help on a variation of the learned helplessness theory, explaining help
organizations are too overwhelmed 
and limited in their resources to be effective and therefore do not try as hard as they
should to help victims. Whatever the case may be, the researchers argue that we can
better understand the plight of the battered woman by asking did she seek help and what
happened when she did, rather than why didn't she leave. 
Because the survivor theory of learned helplessness attributes the battered woman's
plight to ineffective help sources and societal indifference, a logical solution 
would entail increased funding for programs in place and educating the public about the
symptoms and consequences of domestic violence. There are battered women's advocacy
programs in place in courts located throughout the country. However, inadequate funding
limits their effectiveness. By increasing funding, citizens can assure that all battered
women will receive the assistance that will permit them to escape their batterer.
Additionally, if we educate citizens about the harmful effects of domestic abuse, the
public will no longer treat victims with indifference. 
To recap, Edward W. Gondolf and Ellen R. Fisher developed the survivor theory of battered
women's syndrome to explain why statistics indicate that battered women increase their
help seeking behavior as the violence escalates. The theory is composed of four important
elements. The first recognizes that battered women actively seek help throughout their
relationship with the abuser. The second element posits that a lack of options, know-how
and finances creates anxiety in the victim over leaving her batterer. The third element
describes the inadequate and piecemeal help the victim receives. Finally, the fourth
element concludes that the failure of help sources, not learned helplessness, accounts
for why many battered women remain with their abusers. Under the survivor theory, the
best method for helping battered women is to increase funding for battered women's
assistance programs and agencies and educate the public about the harmful effects of
domestic abuse. 
Battered Women's Syndrome Equals Post Traumatic Stress Disorder 
Although the DSM-IV does not recognize battered women's syndrome as a distinct mental
illness or disorder, some experts maintain that battered women's syndrome is just another
name for post traumatic stress disorder, which the DSM-IV recognizes. The post traumatic
stress disorder theory is also applied to individuals who were never exposed to domestic
abuse, and, in the domestic abuse ambit, does not exclusively focus on the battered
woman's perception of helplessness or ineffective help sources to explain why she stayed
with her batterer. Instead, the theory focuses on the psychological disturbance an
individual suffers after exposure to a traumatic event. 
In 1980, the American Psychiatric Association added the post traumatic stress disorder
classification to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders III, a manual
used by mental health professionals to diagnose mental illness. Although the diagnosis
was controversial at the time, post traumatic stress disorder has gained wide acceptance
in the mental health community and revolutionized the way professionals regard human
reactions to trauma. Prior to the disorder's inception, experts attributed the cause of
emotional trauma to individual weakness. However, with the advent of the theory of post
traumatic stress disorder, experts now attribute the etiology of emotional trauma to an
external stressor, not a weakness in the psyche of the individual. 
Since 1980, the American Psychiatric Association has revised the criteria for diagnosing
post traumatic stress disorder several times. Currently, the diagnostic criteria for post
traumatic stress disorder include a history of exposure to a traumatic event and symptoms
from each of three symptom clusters: intrusive recollections, avoidant/numbing symptoms
and hyper arousal symptoms. Recent data indicate that many individuals qualify for a post
traumatic stress disorder under the current diagnostic criteria, with prevalence rates
running between 5 to 10% in our society. As noted earlier, in order for a diagnosis of
post traumatic stress disorder to apply, the individual must have been exposed to a
traumatic event involving actual or threatened death or injury, or a threat to the
physical integrity of the person or others. The authors of the early theory of post
traumatic stress disorder considered a traumatic event to be outside the range of human
experience, such events included rape, torture, war, the Holocaust, the atomic bombings
of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, earthquakes, hurricanes, volcanos, airplane crashes and
automobile accidents, and did not contemplate applying the diagnosis to battered women.
The American Psychiatric Association loosened the traumatic event criteria in the DSM-IV,
which replaced the DSM-III and DSM-IIIR. Presently, the traumatic event need only be
markedly distressing to almost anyone. Therefore, battered women have little trouble
meeting the DSM-IV traumatic event diagnostic requirement because most people would find
the abuse battered women are subjected to markedly distressing. In addition to meeting
the traumatic event diagnostic criteria, an individual must have symptoms from the
intrusive recollection, avoidant/numbing and hyper arousal categories for a post
traumatic stress disorder diagnosis to apply. The intrusive recollection category
consists of symptoms that are distinct and easily identifiable. In individuals suffering
from post traumatic stress disorder, the traumatic event is a dominant psychological
experience that evokes panic, terror, dread, grief or despair. Often, these feelings are
manifested in daytime fantasies, traumatic nightmares and flashbacks. Additionally,
stimuli that the individual associates with the traumatic event can evoke mental images,
emotional responses and psychological reactions associated with the trauma. Examples of
intrusive recollection symptoms a battered woman may suffer are fantasies of killing her
batterer and flashbacks of battering incidents. The avoidant/numbing cluster consists of
the emotional strategies individuals with post traumatic stress disorder use to reduce
the likelihood that they will either expose themselves to traumatic stimuli, or if
exposed, will minimize their psychological response. 
The DSM-IV divides the strategies into three categories: behavioral, cognitive and
emotional. Behavioral strategies include avoiding situations where the stimuli are likely
to be encountered. Dissociation and psychogenic amnesia are cognitive strategies by which
individuals with post traumatic stress disorder cut off the conscious experience of
trauma-based memories and feelings. Lastly, the individual may separate the cognitive
aspects from the emotional aspects of psychological experience and perceive only the
former. This type of psychic numbing serves as an emotional anesthesia that makes it
extremely difficult for people with post traumatic stress disorder to participate in
meaningful interpersonal relationships. Thus, a battered woman suffering from post
traumatic stress disorder may avoid her batterer and repress trauma-based feelings and
emotions. The hyper arousal category symptoms closely resemble those seen in panic and
generalized anxiety disorders. Although symptoms such as insomnia and irritability are
generic anxiety symptoms, hyper vigilance and startle are unique to post traumatic stress
disorder. The hyper vigilance symptom may become so intense in individuals suffering from
post traumatic stress disorder that it appears as if they are paranoid. 
A careful reading of post traumatic stress disorder symptoms and diagnostic criteria
indicates that Dr. Walker's classical theory of battered women's syndrome is contained
within. For instance, both theories require that the victim be exposed to a traumatic
event. In Dr. Walker's theory, she describes the traumatic event as a cycle of violence.
The post traumatic stress disorder theory, on the other hand, only requires that the
event be markedly distressing to almost everyone. Thus, the cycle of violence described
by Dr. Walker is considered a traumatic stressor for the purposes of diagnosing post
traumatic stress disorder. Additionally, like the classical theory of battered women's
syndrome, the theory of post traumatic stress disorder recognizes that an individual may
become helpless after exposure to a traumatic event. Although the post traumatic stress
disorder theory seems to incorporate Dr. Walker's theory, it is more inclusive in that it
recognizes that different individuals may have different reactions to traumatic events
and does not rely heavily on the theory of learned helplessness to explain why battered
women stay with their abusers. 
There are several methods a professional can utilize to treat individuals suffering from
post traumatic stress disorder. The most successful treatments are those that they
administer immediately after the traumatic event. Experts commonly call this type of
treatment critical incident stress debriefing. Although this type of treatment is
effective in halting the development of post traumatic stress disorder, the cyclical
nature and gradual escalation of violence in domestic abuse situations make critical
incident stress debriefing an unlikely therapy for battered women. The second type of
treatment is administered after post traumatic stress disorder has developed and is less
effective than critical incident stress debriefing. This type of treatment may consist of
psychodynamic psychotherapy, behavioral therapy, pharmacotherapy and group therapy. The
most effective post-manifestation treatment for battered women is group therapy. In a
group therapy session, battered women can discuss traumatic memories, post traumatic
stress disorder symptoms and functional deficits with others who have had similar
experiences. By discussing their experiences and symptoms, the women form a common bond
and release repressed memories, feelings and emotions. 
To summarize, many experts regard battered women's syndrome as a subcategory of post
traumatic stress disorder. The diagnostic criteria for post traumatic stress disorder
include a history of exposure to a traumatic event and symptoms from each of three
symptom clusters: intrusive recollections, avoidant/numbing symptoms and hyper arousal
symptoms. After exposure to a traumatic event, defined by the DSM-IV as one that is
markedly distressing to almost everyone, an individual suffering from post traumatic
stress disorder may suffer intrusive recollections, which consist of daytime fantasies,
traumatic nightmares and flashbacks. The individual may also try to avoid stimuli that
remind him/her of the traumatic event and/or develop symptoms associated with generic
anxiety disorders. Critical incident stress debriefing, psychodynamic psychotherapy,
behavioral therapy, pharmacotherapy and group therapy are all recognized as effective
treatments for post traumatic stress disorder. 
Although there are many different theories of battered women's syndrome, most are all
variations or hybrids of the three main theories outlined above. A sound understanding of
Dr. Walker's classical battered women's syndrome theory, Gondolf and Fisher's survivor
theory of battered women's syndrome and the post traumatic stress disorder theory, will
permit the reader to identify the origins and essential elements of these various hybrids
and provide them with a better understanding of the plight of the battered woman. Given
the prevalence of domestic abuse in our society, it is important to realize that the
battered woman does not like abuse or is responsible for her victimization. The three
theories discussed above all offer rationale explanations for why a battered women often
stays with her abuser and explore the psychological harm caused by abuse while
discounting the popular perception that battered women must enjoy the abuse.
Bibliography
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Diagnostic And Statistical Manual Of Mental Disorders. Fourth Edition. 
DSM-IV; American Psychiatric Association, 1994.
Terrifying Love, Why Battered Women Kill; Lenore E. Walker, Harper & Row Publishers,
1989.
Abused Women and Survivor Therapy - A Practical Guide for the Pysychotherapist; Lenore E.
Walker, American Psychiatric Association, 1994.